Global warming

Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century, and its projected continuation.

The average global air temperature near the Earth's surface increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the 100 years ending in 2005. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-made) greenhouse gas concentrations" via an enhanced greenhouse effect. Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.

These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least 30 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC, the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main conclusions.

Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first century. This range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.

Increasing global temperature is expected to cause sea levels to rise, an increase in the intensity of extreme weather events, and significant changes to the amount and pattern of precipitation, likely leading to an expanse of tropical areas and increased pace of desertification. Other expected effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, modifications of trade routes, glacier retreat, mass species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.

Global mean surface temperature anomaly relative to 1961–1990

References

1. "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . . “The updated hundred-year linear trend (1906 to 2005) of 0.74 °C [0.56 °C to 0.92 °C] is therefore larger than the corresponding trend for 1901 to 2000 given in the TAR of 0.6 °C [0.4 °C to 0.8 °C].”
2. Hegerl, Gabriele C.; et al. . "Understanding and Attributing Climate Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 690. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. . “Recent estimates (Figure 9.9) indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the seconds half of the twentieth century, with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings”
3. Ammann, Caspar; et al. . "Solar influence on climate during the past millennium: Results from ransient simulations with the NCAR Climate Simulation Model" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (10): 3713–3718. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605064103. PMID 17360418. “However, because of a lack of interactive ozone, the model cannot fully simulate features discussed in (44)." "While the NH temperatures of the high-scaled experiment are often colder than the lower bound from proxy data, the modeled decadal-scale NH surface temperature for the medium-scaled case falls within the uncertainty range of the available temperature reconstructions. The medium-scaled simulation also broadly reproduces the main features seen in the proxy records." "Without anthropogenic forcing, the 20th century warming is small. The simulations with only natural forcing components included yield an early 20th century peak warming of ≈0.2 °C (≈1950 AD), which is reduced to about half by the end of the century because of increased volcanism.” 
4. The 2001 joint statement was signed by the scientific academies of Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, the Caribbean, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden, and the UK. The 2005 statement added Japan, Russia, and the U.S. The 2007 statement added Mexico and South Africa. Professional societies include American Meteorological Society, American Geophysical Union, American Institute of Physics, American Astronomical Society, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London, Geological Society of America, American Chemical Society, and Engineers Australia.
5. "The Science Of Climate Change". Royal Society (May 2001). .
6. "Joint science academies' statement: Global response to climate change". Royal Society (June 2005). .
7. "Joint science academies' statement on growth and responsibility: sustainability, energy efficiency and climate protection" (PDF). Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (May 2007). .
8. "Don't fight, adapt". National Post (December 2007). .
9. "A guide to facts and fictions about climate change". Royal Society (March 2005). . “"However, the overwhelming majority of scientists who work on climate change agree on the main points"”
10. "Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change". Science Magazine (December 2004). .
11. global warming - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
12. "Climate Change: Basic Information". United States Environmental Protection Agency . . “In common usage, 'global warming' often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities.”
13. "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Article I". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. .
14. "Frequent Questions - Science - Climate Change - U.S. EPA". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (January 8, 2008).
15. Berger, A.; et al. (2005-12-10). "On the origin of the 100-kyr cycles in the astronomical forcing". Paleoceanography 20 (4). doi:10.1029/2005PA001173, . PA4019.
16. Genthon, C.; et al. . "Vostok Ice Core - Climatic response to CO₂ and orbital forcing changes over the last climatic cycle" (abstract). Nature 329 (6138): 414–418. doi:10.1038/329414a0.
17. Alley, Richard B.; et al. (January 2002). "A northern lead in the orbital band: north-south phasing of Ice-Age events". Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (1-3): 431–441. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00072-5.
18. Robock, Alan, and Clive Oppenheimer, Eds., 2003: Volcanism and the Earth’s Atmosphere, Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 360 pp.
19. "Joint science academies' statement: The science of climate change" (ASP). Royal Society . “The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science”
20. "Rising to the climate challenge". Nature 449 (7164): 755. doi:10.1038/449755a.
21. Svensmark, Henrik (February 2007). "Cosmoclimatology: a new theory emerges". Astronomy & Geophysics 48 (1): 18–24. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48118.x. 
22. Forster, Piers; et al. . "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 188-193. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
23. Bard, Edouard; Frank, Martin . "Climate change and solar variability: What's new under the sun?" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 248 (1-2): 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.06.016) (inactive 2008-06-25).
24. Meehl, Gerald A.; et al. (2005-03-18). "How Much More Global Warming and Sea Level Rise" (PDF). Science 307 (5716): 1769–1772. doi:10.1126/science.1106663. PMID 15774757. Retrieved on 2007-02-11. 
25. "IPCC WG1 AR4 Report — Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science" (PDF). IPCC WG1 AR4 Report p97 (pdf page 5 of 36). IPCC (2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-07. “To emit 240 W m–2, a surface would have to have a temperature of around –19 °C. This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth’s surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C). Instead, the necessary –19 °C is found at an altitude about 5 km above the surface.”
26. Note that the Greenhouse Effect produces a temperature increase of about 33 °C (59 °F) with respect to black body predictions and not a surface temperature of 33 °C (91 °F) which is 32 °F (0 °C) higher. The average surface temperature is about 14 °C (57 °F). Also note that both the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures are expressed to 2 significant figures even though the conversion formula produces 3.
27. Kiehl, J. T.; Kevin E. Trenberth (February 1997). "Earth’s Annual Global Mean Energy Budget" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78 (2): 197–208. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved on 2006-05-01. 
28. "Water vapour: feedback or forcing?". RealClimate (6 Apr 2005). Retrieved on 2006-05-01.
29. Neftel, A., E. Moor, H. Oeschger, and B. Stauffer. (1985). "Evidence from polar ice cores for the increase in atmospheric CO₂ in the past two centuries". Nature 315:45-47.
30. Pearson, Paul N.; Palmer, Martin R. (2000-08-17). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years" (abstract). Nature 406 (6797): 695–699. doi:10.1038/35021000. 
31. "Summary for Policymakers". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001-01-20). Retrieved on 2007-01-18.
32. Tans, Pieter. "Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide – Mauna Loa". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on 2008-02-15.
33. Prentice, I. Colin; et al. (2001-01-20). "3.7.3.3 SRES scenarios and their implications for future CO2 concentration". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.
34. "4.4.6. Resource Availability". IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.
35. Soden, Brian J.; Held, Isacc M. (2005-11-01). "An Assessment of Climate Feedbacks in Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Models" (PDF). Journal of Climate 19 (14): 3354–3360. doi:10.1175/JCLI3799.1. Retrieved on 2007-04-21. “Interestingly, the true feedback is consistently weaker than the constant relative humidity value, implying a small but robust reduction in relative humidity in all models on average" "clouds appear to provide a positive feedback in all models” 
36. Panel on Climate Change Feedbacks, Climate Research Committee, National Research Council, 2004: Understanding Climate Change Feedbacks.
37. Stocker, Thomas F.; et al. (2001-01-20). "7.5.2 Sea Ice". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.
38. Sample, Ian (2005-08-11). "Warming Hits 'Tipping Point'", The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-01-18. 
39. Buesseler, Ken O.; et al. (2007-04-27). "Revisiting Carbon Flux Through the Ocean's Twilight Zone" (abstract). Science 316 (5824): 567–570. doi:10.1126/science.1137959. PMID 17463282. Retrieved on 2007-11-16. 
40. Scafetta, Nicola; West, Bruce J. (2006-03-09). "Phenomenological solar contribution to the 1900–2000 global surface warming" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters 33 (5): L05708. doi:10.1029/2005GL025539. L05708. Retrieved on 2007-05-08. 
41. Stott, Peter A.; et al. (2003-12-03). "Do Models Underestimate the Solar Contribution to Recent Climate Change?". Journal of Climate 16 (24): 4079–4093. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<4079:DMUTSC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved on 2007-04-16. 
42. Marsh, Nigel; Henrik, Svensmark (November 2000). "Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Climate" (PDF). Space Science Reviews 94: 215–230. doi:10.1023/A:1026723423896. Retrieved on 2007-04-17. 
43.  Svensmark, Henrik (July 2000). "Cosmic Rays and Earth's Climate" (PDF). Space Science Reviews 93 (1-2): 175–185. doi:10.1023/A:1026592411634. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. 
44.  Hegerl, Gabriele C.; et al.. "Understanding and Attributing Climate Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 675. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2008-02-01.
45.  "Climate Change 2001:Working Group I: The Scientific Basis (Fig. 2.12)" (2001). Retrieved on 2007-05-08.
46.  Ozone History
47.  Foukal, Peter; et al. (2006-09-14). "Variations in solar luminosity and their effect on the Earth's climate." (abstract). Nature 443: 161. doi:10.1038/nature05072. Retrieved on 2007-04-16. 
48.  National Center for Atmospheric Research (2006-09-14). "Changes in Solar Brightness Too Weak to Explain Global Warming". Press release. Retrieved on 2007-07-13.
49.  Lockwood, Mike; Claus Fröhlich. "Recent oppositely directed trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society A 463: 2447. doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.1880. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. “Our results show that the observed rapid rise in global mean temperatures seen after 1985 cannot be ascribed to solar variability, whichever of the mechanisms is invoked and no matter how much the solar variation is amplified.” 
50.  Reply to Lockwood and Fröhlich - The persistent role of the Sun in climate forcing — Spacecenter
51.  Richard Black (April 3, 2008). "'No Sun link' to climate change", BBC News Online. 
52.  T Sloan and A W Wolfendale (2008). "Testing the proposed causal link between cosmic rays and cloud cover". Environ. Res. Lett. 3: 024001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/2/024001. 
53.  preprint of this paper can be found here
54.  Working group I, section 3.2.2.2 of the 2007 IPPC page 243
55.  Smith, Thomas M.; Reynolds, Richard W. (2005-05-15). "A Global Merged Land–Air–Sea Surface Temperature Reconstruction Based on Historical Observations (1880–1997)" (PDF). Journal of Climate 18 (12): 2021–2036. doi:10.1175/JCLI3362.1. ISSN 0894-8755. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. 
56.  Rowan T. Sutton, Buwen Dong, Jonathan M. Gregory (2007). "Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison with observations". Geophysical Research Letters 34: L02701. doi:10.1029/2006GL028164. Retrieved on 2007-09-19. 
57.  Hansen, James E.; et al. (2006-01-12). "Goddard Institute for Space Studies, GISS Surface Temperature Analysis". NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Retrieved on 2007-01-17.
58.  "Global Temperature for 2005: second warmest year on record" (PDF). Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia (2005-12-15). Retrieved on 2007-04-13.
59.  "WMO STATEMENT ON THE STATUS OF THE GLOBAL CLIMATE IN 2005" (PDF). World Meteorological Organization (2005-12-15). Retrieved on 2007-04-13.
60.  Changnon, Stanley A.; Bell, Gerald D. (2000). El Niño, 1997-1998: The Climate Event of the Century. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195135520. 
61.  Mitchell, J. F. B.; et al. (2001-01-20). "12.4.3.3 Space-time studies". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.
62.  Hansen J, Sato M, Ruedy R, Lacis A, Oinas V (August 2000). "Global warming in the twenty-first century: an alternative scenario". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (18): 9875–80. doi:10.1073/pnas.170278997. PMID 10944197. 
63.  Ruddiman, William F. (March 2005). "How Did Humans First Alter Global Climate?" (PDF). Scientific American 292 (3): 46–53. Retrieved on 2007-03-05. 
64.  Schmidt, Gavin; et al. (2004-12-10). "A note on the relationship between ice core methane concentrations and insolation" (abstract). Geophysical Research Letters 31 (23): L23206. doi:10.1029/2004GL021083. L23206. Retrieved on 2007-03-05. 
65.  Hansen, James; et al. (2006-09-26). "Global temperature change" (PDF). PNAS 103: 14288–14293. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606291103. PMID 17001018. Retrieved on 2007-04-20. 
66.  Open University (2004-01-30). "The Open University Provides Answers on Global Warming" (PDF). Press release. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
67.  Cohen, Anthony S.; et al. (February 2004). "Osmium isotope evidence for the regulation of atmospheric CO₂ by continental weathering" (PDF). Geology 32 (2): 157–160. doi:10.1130/G20158.1. Retrieved on 2007-03-04. 
68.  "Chapter 7, "Couplings Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry"" (PDF). Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Retrieved on 2008-02-21.
69.  Hansen, James (2000). "Climatic Change: Understanding Global Warming". One World: The Health & Survival of the Human Species in the 21st century. Health Press. Retrieved on 2007-08-18.
70.  "Summary for Policymakers". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001-01-20). Retrieved on 2007-04-28.
71.  Torn, Margaret; Harte, John (2006-05-26). "Missing feedbacks, asymmetric uncertainties, and the underestimation of future warming". Geophysical Research Letters 33 (10). doi:10.1029/2005GL025540, (inactive 2008-06-25). L10703. Retrieved on 2007-03-04. 
72.  Harte, John; et al. (2006-10-30). "Shifts in plant dominance control carbon-cycle responses to experimental warming and widespread drought". Environmental Research Letters 1 (1): 014001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/1/1/014001. 014001. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
73.  Scheffer, Marten; et al. (2006-05-26). "Positive feedback between global warming and atmospheric CO2 concentration inferred from past climate change." (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters 33: L10702. doi:10.1029/2005gl025044. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. 
74.  N. S. Keenlyside, M. Latif, J. Jungclaus, L. Kornblueh2, E. Roeckner (May 1, 2008). "Advancing decadal-scale climate prediction in the North Atlantic sector". Nature (453): 84-88. doi:10.1038/nature06921. Retrieved on 2008-07-06. 
75.  Stocker, Thomas F.; et al. (2001-01-20). "7.2.2 Cloud Processes and Feedbacks". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
76.  Douglass, David H.; et al. (2007-12-05). "A comparison of tropical temperature trends with model predictions" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology 9999 (9999). doi:10.1002/joc.1651. Retrieved on 2008-05-12. 
77.  Macey, Jennifer (September 19, 2007). "Global warming opens up Northwest Passage", ABC News. Retrieved on 2007-12-11. 
78.   "Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001-02-16). Retrieved on 2007-03-14.
79.  McMichael AJ, Woodruff RE, Hales S (2006). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks". Lancet 367 (9513): 859–69. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68079-3. PMID 16530580. 
80.   "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007-04-13). Retrieved on 2007-04-28.
81.  Knutson, Thomas R. (2008). "Simulated reduction in Atlantic hurricane frequency under twenty-first-century warming conditions". Nature Geoscience 1: 359. doi:10.1038/ngeo202. 
82.  Thomas, Chris D.; et al. (2004-01-08). "Extinction risk from climate change" (PDF). Nature 427 (6970): 145–138. doi:10.1038/nature02121. Retrieved on 2007-03-18. 
83.  McLaughlin, John F.; et al. (2002-04-30). "Climate change hastens population extinctions" (PDF). PNAS 99 (9): 6070–6074. doi:10.1073/pnas.052131199. PMID 11972020. Retrieved on 2007-03-29. 
84.  Botkin, Daniel B.; et al. (March 2007). "Forecasting the Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity" (PDF). BioScience 57 (3): 227–236. doi:10.1641/B570306. Retrieved on 2007-11-30. 
85.  Global Warming May Spread Diseases, Study: Pathogens Invade New Areas As Temperatures Rise, CBS News
86.  Global warming breeds malaria
87.  "At-a-glance: The Stern Review". BBC (2006-10-30). Retrieved on 2007-04-29.
88.  Tol and Yohe (2006) "A Review of the Stern Review" World Economics 7(4): 233-50. See also other critiques in World Economics 7(4).
89.  J. Bradford DeLong. "Do unto others...".
90.  John Quiggin. "Stern and the critics on discounting".
91.  Terry Barker (April 14, 2008). "Full quote from IPCC on costs of climate change". FT.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-14.
92.  Dlugolecki, Andrew; et al. (2002). "Climate Risk to Global Economy" (PDF). CEO Briefing: UNEP FI Climate Change Working Group. United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved on 2007-04-29.
93.  "Thomas Schelling: Developing Countries Will Suffer Most from Global Warming" (PDF). Resources 164. Retrieved on 2008-03-01.
94.  "Climate Control: a proposal for controlling global greenhouse gas emissions" (PDF). Sustento Institute. Retrieved on 2007-12-10.
95.  Monbiot, George. "Rigged - The climate talks are a stitch-up, as no one is talking about supply." (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-12-22.
96.  "Kyoto Protocol Status of Ratification" (PDF). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2006-07-10). Retrieved on 2007-04-27.
97.  Climate talks face international hurdles, by Arthur Max, Associated press, 5/14/07.
98.  George W. Bush (March 13, 2001). "Text of a Letter from the President to Senators Hagel, Helms, Craig, and Roberts". Office of the Press Secretary. Retrieved on 2007-11-21.
99.  State of the Union Address, retrieved 2008-01-28. "The United States is committed to strengthening our energy security and confronting global climate change. And the best way to meet these goals is for America to continue leading the way toward the development of cleaner and more energy-efficient technology."
100.  "Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative". Retrieved on 2006-11-07.
101.  Sarah Yang, Media Relations (March 13, 2001). "New analysis finds alarming increase in expected growth of China CO2 emissions". UC Berkeley. Retrieved on 2008-03-10.
102.  "Wen Urges Greater China Effort to Fight Pollution, July 10, 2007, Reuters, via planetark.com". Retrieved on 2007-07-27.
103.  "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007-05-04). Retrieved on 2007-12-09.
104.  Guptal, Sujata; et al. (2007-05-04). "Policies, Instruments and Co-operative Arrangements" (PDF). Policies, Instruments and Co-operative Arrangements. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 21. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2008-04-26. “..developed countries as a group would need to reduce their emissions to below 1990 levels in 2020 (on the order of –10% to 40% below 1990 levels for most of the considered regimes) and to still lower levels by 2050 (40% to 95% below 1990 levels), even if developing countries make substantial reductions.”
105.  Weart, Spencer (2006), "The Public and Climate Change", in Weart, Spencer, The Discovery of Global Warming, American Institute of Physics, <http://www.aip.org/history/climate/Public.htm>. Retrieved on 14 April 2007 
106.  Revkin, Andrew (2007-04-01). "Poor Nations to Bear Brunt as World Warms", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
107.  Brahic, Catherine (2006-04-25). "China's emissions may surpass the US in 2007". New Scientist. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
108.  Crampton, Thomas (2007-01-04). "More in Europe worry about climate than in U.S., poll shows", International Herald Tribune. Retrieved on 2007-04-14. 
109.  "Summary of Findings". Little Consensus on Global Warming. Partisanship Drives Opinion. Pew Research Center (2006-07-12). Retrieved on 2007-04-14.
110.  "EU agrees on carbon dioxide cuts", BBC (2007-03-09). Retrieved on 2007-05-04. 
111.  Begley, Sharon (2007-08-13). "The Truth About Denial", Newsweek. Retrieved on 2007-08-13. 
112.  Adams, David (2006-09-20). "Royal Society tells Exxon: stop funding climate change denial". The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-08-09.
113.  "Exxon cuts ties to global warming skeptics", MSNBC (2007-01-12). Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
114.  Sandell, Clayton (2007-01-03). "Report: Big Money Confusing Public on Global Warming", ABC. Retrieved on 2007-04-27. 
115.  "Greenpeace: Exxon still funding climate skeptics", USA Today (2007-05-18). Retrieved on 2007-07-09. 
116.  Ceres (April 28, 2004). "Global Warming Resolutions at U.S. Oil Companies Bring Policy Commitments from Leaders, and Record High Votes at Laggards". Press release. Retrieved on 2007-07-27.
117.  "China now top carbon polluter", BBC News (2008-04-14). Retrieved on 2008-04-22. ; "China is biggest CO2 emitter : research", The Age (2008-04-15). Retrieved on 2008-04-22. ; "Group: China tops world in CO2 emissions", Associated Press (2007-06-20). Retrieved on 2007-10-16. ; "Group: China surpassed US in carbon emissions in 2006: Dutch report", Reuters (2007-06-20). Retrieved on 2007-10-16. 
118.  China: US should take lead on climate, by Michael Casey, Associated Press, via newsvine.com 12/7/07.
119.  India's glaciers give grim message on warming, by Somni Sengupta, 7/17/07, New York Times via oregonlive.com.
120.  Chinese object to climate draft, BBC, 5/1/07; In Battle for U.S. Carbon Caps, Eyes and Efforts Focus on China,by Steven Mufson, Washington Post, 6/6/07.
121.  "The Ocean and the Carbon Cycle". NASA (2005-06-21). Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
122.  Jacobson, Mark Z. (2005-04-02). "Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (D7): D07302. doi:10.1029/2004JD005220. D07302. Retrieved on 2007-04-28. 
123.  Caldeira, Ken; Wickett, Michael E. (2005-09-21). "Ocean model predictions of chemistry changes from carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (C09S04): 1–12. doi:10.1029/2004JC002671. Retrieved on 2006-02-14. 
124.  Raven, John A.; et al. (2005-06-30). "Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide" (ASP). Royal Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-04.

Further reading

• Association of British Insurers (2005-06). Financial Risks of Climate Change (PDF). 
• Barnett, Tim P.; J. C. Adam, D. P. Lettenmaier (2005-11-17). "Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions" (abstract). Nature 438 (7066): 303–309. doi:10.1038/nature04141. 
• Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Robert T. O'Malley, David A. Siegel, Charles R. McClain, Jorge L. Sarmiento, Gene C. Feldman, Allen G. Milligan, Paul G. Falkowski, Ricardo M. Letelier, Emanuel S. Boss (2006-12-07). "Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity" (PDF). Nature 444 (7120): 752–755. doi:10.1038/nature05317. 
• Choi, Onelack; Ann Fisher (May 2005). "The Impacts of Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S.". Climate Change 58 (1–2): 149–170. doi:10.1023/A:1023459216609. 
• Dyurgerov, Mark B.; Mark F. Meier (2005). Glaciers and the Changing Earth System: a 2004 Snapshot (PDF), Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research Occasional Paper #58. ISSN 0069-6145. 
• Emanuel, Kerry A. (2005-08-04). "Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years." (PDF). Nature 436 (7051): 686–688. doi:10.1038/nature03906. 
• Hansen, James; Larissa Nazarenko, Reto Ruedy, Makiko Sato, Josh Willis, Anthony Del Genio, Dorothy Koch, Andrew Lacis, Ken Lo, Surabi Menon, Tica Novakov, Judith Perlwitz, Gary Russell, Gavin A. Schmidt, Nicholas Tausnev (2005-06-03). "Earth's Energy Imbalance: Confirmation and Implications" (PDF). Science 308 (5727): 1431–1435. doi:10.1126/science.1110252. PMID 15860591. 
• Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Laura R. Hmelo, Sean P. Sylva (2003-02-21). "Molecular Fossil Record of Elevated Methane Levels in Late Pleistocene Coastal Waters". Science 299 (5610): 1214–1217. doi:10.1126/science.1079601. PMID 12595688. 
• Hirsch, Tim (2006-01-11). "Plants revealed as methane source", BBC. 
• Hoyt, Douglas V.; Kenneth H. Schatten (1993–11). "A discussion of plausible solar irradiance variations, 1700–1992". Journal of Geophysical Research 98 (A11): 18,895–18,906. 
• A. V. Karnaukhov (2001). "Role of the Biosphere in the Formation of the Earth’s Climate: The Greenhouse Catastrophe" (PDF). Biophysics 46 (6). 
• Kenneth, James P.; Kevin G. Cannariato, Ingrid L. Hendy, Richard J. Behl (2003-02-14). Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. American Geophysical Union. 
• Keppler, Frank; Marc Brass, Jack Hamilton, Thomas Röckmann (2006-01-18). "Global Warming - The Blame Is not with the Plants", Max Planck Society. 
• Lean, Judith L.; Y.M. Wang, N.R. Sheeley (2002–12). "The effect of increasing solar activity on the Sun's total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles: Implications for solar forcing of climate" (abstract). Geophysical Research Letters 29 (24): 2224. doi:10.1029/2002GL015880. 
• Lerner, K. Lee; Brenda Wilmoth Lerner (2006-07-26). Environmental issues : essential primary sources.. Thomson Gale. ISBN 1414406258. 
• McLaughlin, Joseph B.; Angelo DePaola, Cheryl A. Bopp, Karen A. Martinek, Nancy P. Napolilli, Christine G. Allison, Shelley L. Murray, Eric C. Thompson, Michele M. Bird, John P. Middaugh (2005-10-06). "Outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis associated with Alaskan oysters" (abstract). New England Journal of Medicine 353 (14): 1463–1470. New England Medical Society. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa051594. PMID 16207848. (online version requires registration)
• Muscheler, Raimund; Fortunat Joos, Simon A. Müller, Ian Snowball (2005-07-28). "Climate: How unusual is today's solar activity?" (PDF). Nature 436 (7012): 1084–1087. doi:10.1038/nature04045. 
• Oerlemans, J. (2005-04-29). "Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records" (PDF). Science 308 (5722): 675–677. doi:10.1126/science.1107046. PMID 15746388. 
• Oreskes, Naomi (2004-12-03). "Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change" (PDF). Science 306 (5702): 1686. doi:10.1126/science.1103618. 
• Purse, Bethan V.; Philip S. Mellor, David J. Rogers, Alan R. Samuel, Peter P. C. Mertens, Matthew Baylis (February 2005). "Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe" (abstract). Nature Reviews Microbiology 3 (2): 171–181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. 
• Revkin, Andrew C (2005-11-05). "Rise in Gases Unmatched by a History in Ancient Ice", The New York Times. 
• Ruddiman, William F. (2005-12-15). Earth's Climate Past and Future. New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-7167-3741-8. 
• Ruddiman, William F. (2005-08-01). Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of Climate. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12164-8. 
• Solanki, Sami K.; I.G. Usoskin, B. Kromer, M. Schussler, J. Beer (2004-10-23). "Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades compared to the previous 11,000 years." (PDF). Nature 431: 1084–1087. doi:10.1038/nature02995. 
• Solanki, Sami K.; I. G. Usoskin, B. Kromer, M. Schüssler, J. Beer (2005-07-28). "Climate: How unusual is today's solar activity? (Reply)" (PDF). Nature 436: E4–E5. doi:10.1038/nature04046. 
• Sowers, Todd (2006-02-10). "Late Quaternary Atmospheric CH₄ Isotope Record Suggests Marine Clathrates Are Stable". Science 311 (5762): 838–840. doi:10.1126/science.1121235. PMID 16469923. 
• Svensmark, Henrik; Jens Olaf P. Pedersen, Nigel D. Marsh, Martin B. Enghoff, Ulrik I. Uuggerhøj (2007-02-08). "Experimental evidence for the role of ions in particle nucleation under atmospheric conditions". Proceedings of the Royal Society A 463 (2078): 385–396. FirstCite Early Online Publishing. doi:10.1098/rspa.2006.1773. (online version requires registration)
• Walter, K. M.; S. A. Zimov, Jeff P. Chanton, D. Verbyla, F. S. Chapin (2006-09-07). "Methane bubbling from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to climate warming". Nature 443 (7107): 71–75. doi:10.1038/nature05040. 
• Wang, Y.-M.; J.L. Lean, N.R. Sheeley (2005-05-20). "Modeling the sun's magnetic field and irradiance since 1713" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal 625: 522–538. doi:10.1086/429689. 

Links

Scientific

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and UN Climate Panel Report's Key Findings.
• Nature Reports Climate Change
• The UK Met Office Hadley Centre site
• NOAA's Global Warming FAQ
• Discovery of Global Warming – An extensive introduction to the topic and the history of its discovery, written by Spencer R. Weart
• Caution urged on climate 'risks'
• Impact of Livestock on Global Warming (UN Report)

Educational

• Global Climate Change: NASA's Eyes on the Earth - Climate change overviews, key indicators, multimedia and current news.
• What Is Global Warming? – Shockwave presentation from National Geographic
• The EdGCM (Educational Global Climate Modelling) Project – A free research-quality simulation for students, educators, and scientists alike, with a user-friendly interface that runs on desktop computers
• DISCOVER Satellite-based ocean and climate data since 1979 from NASA
• The Pew Center on global climate change
• Global Warming Art
• Video of a talk by Warren Washington titled "The Evolution of Global Warming Science: From Ideas to Scientific Facts"
• Best Effort Global Warming Trajectories by Harvey Lam (Princeton University), The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

Other

• Science and Technology Sources on the Internet – Extensive commented list of Internet resources
• Union of Concerned Scientists Global Warming page
• Watch and read 'Tipping Point', Australian science documentary about effects of global warming on rare, common, and endangered wildlife
• Gateway to the UN System's Work on Climate Change

This guide is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia.